Cytokines

Key Biological Properties: TFFs are primarily synthesized and secreted by mucin-secreting epithelial cells lining the gastrointestinal tract . They are highly conserved during evolution and exhibit resistance to thermal and enzymatic digestion .

Expression Patterns and Tissue Distribution: TFF1 and TFF2 are predominantly expressed in the stomach, while TFF3 is mainly found in the small and large intestines . Additionally, TFFs are expressed in various tissues, including the brain, urogenital system, lymphoid tissue, respiratory tract, and conjunctival goblet cells .

Primary Biological Functions: TFFs play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and repair of mucosal surfaces . They are involved in mucosal defense, wound healing, and epithelial restitution .

Role in Immune Responses and Pathogen Recognition: TFFs contribute to the innate immune defense by stabilizing the mucus layer and protecting the mucosa from insults . They also interact with immune cells and participate in immune regulation .

Mechanisms with Other Molecules and Cells: TFFs interact with mucins to enhance the protective properties of the mucus layer . They also bind to various molecules, including growth factors and cytokines, to modulate cellular responses .

Binding Partners and Downstream Signaling Cascades: TFFs form complexes with other proteins, such as gastrokine-2 and IgG Fc binding protein (FCGBP), to mediate their effects . They activate signaling pathways, including the MAPK/ERK and STAT3 pathways, to regulate cellular processes .

Regulatory Mechanisms Controlling Expression and Activity: TFF expression is regulated by genetic, epigenetic, and tissue-specific mechanisms . These include promoter methylation, chromatin modification, histone acetylation, and transcription factor binding .

Transcriptional Regulation and Post-Translational Modifications: TFFs are subject to transcriptional regulation by factors such as STAT3 . Post-translational modifications, including glycosylation, also play a role in modulating TFF activity .

Biomedical Research: TFFs are valuable tools in studying mucosal biology and gastrointestinal diseases . They are used to investigate the mechanisms of mucosal protection and repair .

Diagnostic Tools and Therapeutic Strategies: TFFs have potential applications in diagnostics and therapeutics. They are being explored as biomarkers for gastrointestinal diseases and as therapeutic agents for conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease and gastric ulcers .

Role Throughout the Life Cycle: TFFs are involved in various stages of life, from development to aging . They play a role in tissue development, maintenance, and repair . In pathological conditions, TFF expression and function can be altered, contributing to disease progression .